Methods for the treatment of flue gas streams using sorbent compositions with reduced auto-ignition properties

ABSTRACT

An activated carbon sorbent composition comprising activated carbon and a passivation agent, wherein the activated carbon sorbent composition exhibits reduced self-heating or auto-ignition properties as compared to the activated carbon. The activated carbon sorbent composition may be utilized to sequester contaminants such as mercury from a flue gas stream. The passivation agent includes a sulfur species, and may be a sulfur oxide compound, a sulfide compound, or an organic sulfur compound. Methods for the manufacture of the activated carbon sorbent composition and for the sequestration of contaminants in a flue gas stream using the composition are also disclosed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the priority benefit as a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 15/729,392 filed on Oct. 10, 2017, which isa divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/093,414filed on Apr. 7, 2016, which claims the priority benefit under 35 USC §119 of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/144,146 filed on Apr.7, 2015. Each of these applications is incorporated herein by referencein its entirety.

FIELD

This disclosure relates to the field of sorbent compositions,particularly activated carbon sorbent compositions that exhibit reducedself-heating and/or auto-ignition properties. These compositions may beutilized to efficiently remove metal contaminants from flue gas streams.

BACKGROUND

Activated carbon is a form of carbon processed to have many small,low-volume pores that increase the surface area of the carbon. The highsurface area gives the activated carbon high adsorption properties andprovides a large surface for chemical reactions. Activated carbons havemany applications and are used in gas purification, decaffeination, goldpurification, metal extraction, medicines, sewage treatment, and airfilters such as gas masks and respirators. Activated carbons may beclassified based on size, preparation method, and industrialapplications. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) and granular activatedcarbon (GAC) are the most common types of activated carbons havingapplications in water and air purification systems. While GAC can beeither a particulate or extruded form, PAC is a particulate form withpowder or fine granules of less than 1.0 mm in size with an averagediameter typically between 0.15 mm and 0.25 mm and lower. PAC hasespecially high surface area, exposing significant amounts of beneficialchemically functional and reaction sites and creating high adsorptivepotential for many compounds. For this reason, PAC is especially usefulfor addition directly to process units such as raw water intakes, rapidmix basins, gravity filters, and flue gas streams for adsorption ofcontaminants.

Due to its high adsorption capacity, PAC injection is the leadingtechnology for contaminant emission control at coal-fired power plantsand industrial boilers. At these sites, PAC is introduced into a fluegas stream produced by the burning of coal in the boiler. One targetcontaminant in these systems is mercury and PAC injection technology hasshown the potential to control mercury emissions in most coal-firedplants. Mercury is well known to be a highly toxic compound, and mercuryexposure at appreciable levels can lead to adverse health effects forpeople of all ages, including harm to the brain, heart, kidneys, lungs,and immune system. Although mercury is naturally occurring, mostemissions result from human activities such as burning fossil fuels andother industrial processes. For example, in the United States about 40%of the mercury introduced into the environment comes from coal-firedpower plants.

In the United States and Canada, federal and state/provincialregulations have been implemented or are being considered to reducemercury emissions, particularly from coal-fired power plants, steelmills, cement kilns, waste incinerators and boilers, industrialcoal-fired boilers, and other coal-combusting facilities. For example,the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) haspromulgated Mercury Air Toxics Standards (MATS), which would among otherthings require coal-fired power plants to capture at least approximately80% to 90% of their mercury emissions beginning in 2015.

Large amounts of PAC are required for mercury capture at plants. The PACis shipped via truck or rail to plant sites and often is stored in silosprior to use. Between 38,000 and 42,000 lbs. of PAC may be contained ina truckload while as much as 155,000 lbs. may be contained in a railwaycontainer. Because large amounts of activated carbon are shipped andstored at plant sites and may build up in process units of flue gasstreams, the PAC must be monitored for safety. One characteristic thatmust be monitored, particularly with respect to potential foraccumulation of activated carbon in the baghouse units of TOXECON™systems, is the ignition temperature or kindling point. This is becausesuch systems remove particulate matter (e.g., fly ash) before injectionof the PAC sorbent into the flue gas stream. The PAC sorbent issubsequently removed, typically in a baghouse unit. Therefore, theparticulate matter collected in the baghouse unit is predominately PACand is not diluted with fly ash. This activated carbon can adsorb oxygencausing exothermic reactions on the surface and produce heat (ActivatedCarbon, Marsh, Harry, and Reynosa, Francisco Rodriguez, Elsevier Science1^(st) Edition, Oct. 13, 2005).

Activated carbon surfaces at equilibrium may contain about 5 to 15 wt. %oxygen and if the surface becomes deficient in oxygen, the activatedcarbon will strive to chemisorb oxygen to reach equilibrium. This oxygenchemisorption is highly exothermic and since activated carbon is a goodinsulator, the chemisorption can occur adiabatically with the majorityof the heat contributing to a rise in the internal temperature of theactivated carbon. If the temperature of the activated carbon exceeds itsauto-ignition temperature (ca. 752° F., 400° C.), and if not abated, theactivated carbon may smolder releasing carbon monoxide (CO), and canignite.

SUMMARY

It would be advantageous to provide an activated carbon sorbentcomposition that overcomes the traditional limitations of conventionalactivated carbon sorbents, such as by exhibiting a diminished propensityfor self-heating and/or auto-ignition.

Therefore, it is one object to provide an activated carbon sorbentcomposition that has a reduced propensity for self-heating and/orauto-ignition. The activated carbon sorbent composition, in addition toreduced self-heating and/or auto-ignition properties, may alsoeffectively act as a sorbent to efficiently and rapidly removecontaminants such as mercury from a flue gas stream, e.g., to meetgovernmental regulations for emissions. Reduced self-heating andauto-ignition properties may be demonstrated by a reduced enthalpy(e.g., a reduced specific enthalpy) and/or a reduced oxidation rate(e.g., a reduced peak oxidation rate).

According to one embodiment, an activated carbon sorbent compositionthat exhibits reduced self-heating and/or auto-ignition properties isdisclosed. The activated carbon sorbent composition comprises activatedcarbon and a passivation agent. The passivation agent comprises a sulfuroxide compound that is selected from the group consisting of: (i) anonionic sulfur oxide compound defined by the formula SO_(y), where y=2or 3; and (ii) an ionic sulfur oxide compound comprising an aniondefined by the formula S_(x)O_(y) ²⁻, where x=1 or 2 and y=2, 3, 4, 5,or 6.

A number of feature refinements and additional features (e.g.,characterizations) are applicable to this activated carbon sorbentcomposition. These feature refinements and additional features may beimplemented individually or in any combination. As such, each of thefollowing features may be, but are not required to be, used with anyother feature or combination of features relating to this embodiment ofan activated carbon sorbent composition.

In one characterization, the sulfur oxide compound is an ionic sulfuroxide compound. For example, the ionic sulfur oxide compound maycomprise a cation that is selected from the group consisting ofhydrogen, a nitrogen-containing compound, and a metal cation. In oneparticular characterization, the cation is hydrogen, for example wherethe ionic sulfur oxide compound is sulfuric acid. In another particularcharacterization, the cation is a nitrogen-containing compound, forexample where the nitrogen-containing compound is ammonium. In thischaracterization, the ionic sulfur oxide compound may be ammoniumsulfate, for example. In another characterization, thenitrogen-containing compound is an alkylammonium compound. In yetanother characterization, the cation is a metal cation. For example, themetal cation may be selected from the group consisting of an alkalimetal, an alkaline earth metal and a transition metal. In onecharacterization, the metal cation is an alkali metal, for example wherethe alkali metal is selected from the group consisting of lithium (Li),sodium (Na), and potassium (K). In one particular characterization, thealkali metal is sodium. In yet another characterization, the metalcation is an alkaline earth metal, such as where the alkaline earthmetal is selected from the group consisting of magnesium (Mg), calcium(Ca), and barium (Ba). In yet another characterization, the metal cationis a transition metal, such as where the transition metal is selectedfrom the group consisting of zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel(Ni), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), aluminum (Al), and vanadium (V). Inone particular characterization, the transition metal is zinc. Inanother particular characterization, the transition metal is iron. Inyet another particular characterization, the transition metal isaluminum.

In another characterization of this embodiment of an activated carbonsorbent composition, the sorbent composition comprises at least about0.1 wt. % of the sulfur oxide compound, such as at least about 0.5 wt. %of the sulfur oxide compound. In another characterization, the sorbentcomposition comprises not greater than about 40 wt. % of the sulfuroxide compound, such as not greater than about 20 wt. % of the sulfuroxide compound, such as not greater than about 10 wt. % of the sulfuroxide compound. In one particular characterization, the sorbentcomposition comprises not greater than about 5 wt. % of the sulfur oxidecompound.

In certain characterizations, the sorbent composition has a reducedspecific enthalpy as compared to the specific enthalpy of the activatedcarbon (i.e., without an effective amount of the passivation agent). Inone characterization, the specific enthalpy of the sorbent compositionis at least about 5% lower than the specific enthalpy of the activatedcarbon, for example at least about 10% lower, at least about 20% lower,at least about 30% lower, or even at least about 40% lower than thespecific enthalpy of the activated carbon.

In another characterization, the peak oxidation rate of the sorbentcomposition is lower than the peak oxidation rate of the activatedcarbon (i.e., the activated carbon without an effective amount of thepassivation agent). In one characterization, the peak oxidation rate ofthe sorbent composition is at least about 5% lower than the peakoxidation rate of the activated carbon, for example at least about 10%lower than the peak oxidation rate of the activated carbon, for exampleat least about 20% lower than the peak oxidation rate of the activatedcarbon, for example, at least about 30% lower than the peak oxidationrate of the activated carbon, for example at least about 40% lower thanthe peak oxidation rate of the activated carbon, for example at leastabout 50% lower than the peak oxidation rate of the activated carbon.

The activated carbon sorbent composition according to this embodimentmay also include other additives. In one characterization, the sorbentcomposition comprises an oxidation agent, e.g., to facilitate theoxidation of contaminants, such as mercury, in a flue gas stream. In oneparticular characterization, the oxidation agent comprises a halogenspecies. For example, the halogen species may comprise a bromide salt,such as a bromide salt selected from the group consisting of sodiumbromide, ammonium bromide, calcium bromide, lithium bromide andmagnesium bromide.

In another characterization, the activated carbon sorbent compositioncomprises substantially free-flowing particulates of the activatedcarbon, e.g., powdered activated carbon. In one particularcharacterization, the activated carbon has a median particle size of notgreater than about 20 μm. In another characterization, the activatedcarbon has a median particle size of at least about 6 μm. In anotherparticular characterization, the activated carbon has a median particlesize of not greater than about 30 μm, a particle density of at leastabout 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume of at least about 0.2 cc/g. Inanother particular characterization, the activated carbon has a medianparticle size of not greater than about 20 μm, a particle density of atleast about 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume of at least about 0.2cc/g. In another particular characterization, the activated carbon has amedian particle size of not greater than about 15 μm, a particle densityof at least about 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume of at least about0.2 cc/g. In another particular characterization, the activated carbonhas a median particle size of not greater than about 12 μm, a particledensity of at least about 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume of at leastabout 0.2 cc/g.

The sulfur oxide compound may be associated with the activated carbon ina number of ways. In one characterization, the sulfur oxide compound isin the form of a coating on the activated carbon. In anothercharacterization, the sulfur oxide compound is in particulate form andis admixed with the activated carbon.

In another embodiment of this disclosure, a method for the manufactureof an activated carbon sorbent composition is disclosed. The methodincludes the step of contacting powdered activated carbon with apassivation agent, the passivation agent comprising a sulfur oxidecompound, the sulfur oxide compound being selected from the groupconsisting of: (i) a nonionic sulfur oxide compound defined by theformula SO_(y), where y=2 or 3; and (ii) an ionic sulfur oxide compoundcomprising an anion defined by the formula S_(x)O_(y) ²⁻, where x=1 or 2and y=2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.

A number of refinements and additional method steps (e.g.,characterizations) are applicable to this method for the manufacture ofan activated carbon sorbent composition. These refinements andadditional steps may be implemented individually or in any combination.As such, each of the following refinements may be, but are not requiredto be, used with any other refinement or combination of refinementsrelating to this embodiment of a method for the manufacture of anactivated carbon sorbent composition. For example, the activated carbonsorbent composition produced by the method may be an activated carbonsorbent composition in accordance with the foregoing embodiment of asorbent composition, including any or all of the variouscharacterizations of the sorbent composition.

In one characterization, the contacting step comprises coating thepowdered activated carbon with the passivation agent. For example, thecoating step may comprise forming a slurry of the activated carbon andthe sulfur oxide compound or a precursor to the sulfur oxide compound.In another characterization, the coating step comprises spraying thesulfur oxide compound or a precursor to the sulfur oxide compound ontothe activated carbon.

In another characterization, the contacting step may comprise admixingthe powdered activated carbon with the sulfur oxide compound or aprecursor thereof.

According to another embodiment of this disclosure, a method forremoving contaminants from a flue gas stream using a flue gas train isdisclosed, where the flue gas train comprises a baghouse unit forparticulate matter control. The method includes the steps of burning acombustible material to create a flue gas stream comprisingcontaminants, contacting the flue gas stream with an activated carbonsorbent composition according to any of the foregoing embodiments andcharacterizations with the flue gas stream.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a flow sheet for the manufacture of an activatedcarbon sorbent composition in accordance with the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 illustrates a plant configuration and method for the capture andsequestration of contaminants from a flue gas stream in accordance withthe present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure relates to activated carbon sorbent compositionsthat include activated carbon and a passivation agent, where thepassivation agent is selected to reduce the self-heating and/or theauto-ignition characteristics of the activated carbon.

Activated carbons such as powdered activated carbon (PAC) are known tobe useful for the removal (e.g., sequestration) of contaminants such asmercury from fluids such as a flue gas stream emanating from a boiler(e.g., a coal-fired boiler). As is discussed in more detail below,activated carbons may be formed from a variety of feedstocks such aslignite coal, coconut shells, walnut shells and the like.

The activated carbon sorbent composition disclosed herein includeactivated carbon as a sorbent for the sequestration of contaminants. Ina particular characterization of the sorbent composition, the activatedcarbon is in the form of free-flowing particulates, i.e., particulatesthat are not substantially combined into a cohesive mass. For example,the activated carbon may comprise PAC. The PAC may have a median (D50)particle size that enables the PAC to be readily injected into a fluegas stream for the efficient sequestration of contaminants from the fluegas stream. Thus, for example, the activated carbon may have a medianparticle size that is not greater than about 75 μm and is at least about6 μm. In some embodiments, the median particle size of the activatedcarbon is not greater than about 50 μm, such as not greater than about30 μm, such as not greater than about 20 μm, not greater than about 15μm, or even not greater than about 12 μm. It is found that a relativelysmall median particle size may advantageously enhance the reactionkinetics of mercury oxidation and sequestration of the oxidized mercuryspecies by the activated carbon. However, activated carbon having amedian particle size of less than about 6 μm may be difficult to handleand efficiently deliver to the flue gas stream.

The activated carbon may also be characterized by having awell-controlled particle density. Controlling the particle densitycorrelates to control over the surface area and total pore volume of theactivated carbon, which in turn affect mercury capture performance.Particle density may be measured by liquid mercury volume displacement,in which case the result is referred to as the mercury particle density.In this regard, the activated carbon may have a mercury particle densityof at least about 0.4 g/cc, such as at least about 0.6 g/cc. Conversely,the mercury particle density of the activated carbon may be not greaterthan about 0.9 g/cc, such as not greater than about 0.8 g/cc. Particledensity may be measured by the Micrometrics AutoPore IV MercuryPorosimeter (Micromeritics Inc., Norcross, Ga., USA).

Particle density may also be measured by sedimentary volumedisplacement, in which case the result is referred to as the envelope orskeletal particle density. The envelope density refers to the weight ofsolid carbon per given volume occupied by a solid carbon. In thisregard, the envelope particle density of activated carbon may be atleast about 0.4 g/cc, such as at least about 0.6 g/cc or at least about0.7 g/cc. The envelope particle density of the activated carbon may benot greater than about 1.0 g/cc, such as not greater than about 0.9g/cc, or even not greater than about 0.8 g/cc. Envelope particle densitymay be measured using a Micromeritics GeoPyc Envelope Density Analyzer(Micrometrics, Inc., Norcross, Ga., USA).

The activated carbon may also may have a high pore volume and awell-controlled distribution of the pores, particularly among themesopores (i.e., from 20 Å to 500 Å width) and the micropores (i.e., notgreater than 20 Å width). It has been found that a well-controlleddistribution of micropores and mesopores are desirable for effectiveremoval of mercury from the flue gas stream. In this regard, while notwishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the mesopores arethe predominate structures for capture and transport of the oxidizedmercury species to the micropores, whereas micropores are thepredominate structures for sequestration of the oxidized mercuryspecies.

In this regard, the sum of micropore volume plus mesopore volume (e.g.,the total pore volume) of the activated carbon may be at least about0.10 cc/g, such as at least 0.20 cc/g, at least about 0.24 cc/g or evenat least about 0.25 cc/g. The micropore volume of the activated carbonmay be at least about 0.05 cc/g, such as at least about 0.13 cc/g.Further, the mesopore volume of the activated carbon may be at leastabout 0.05 cc/g, such as at least about 0.13 cc/g. In onecharacterization, the ratio of micropore volume to mesopore volume maybe at least about 0.7, such as at least about 0.9, and may be notgreater than about 1.5. Such levels of micropore volume relative tomesopore volume advantageously enable efficient capture andsequestration of oxidized mercury species, such as HgCl₂ or HgBr₂, bythe activated carbon. Pore volumes may be measured using gas adsorptiontechniques (e.g., N₂ adsorption) using instruments such as a TriStar IISurface Area Analyzer (Micromeritics Instruments Corporation, Norcross,Ga., USA).

Thus, the activated carbon may be characterized by any combination ofthe above features. In one particular characterization, the activatedcarbon is powdered activate carbon having a median particle size of notgreater than about 30 μm, a particle density of at least about 0.4 g/cc,and a total pore volume of at least about 0.2 cc/g. In anotherparticular characterization, the powdered activated carbon has a medianparticle size of not greater than about 20 μm, a particle density of atleast about 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume of at least about 0.2cc/g. In another particular characterization, the powdered activatedcarbon has a median particle size of not greater than about 15 μm, aparticle density of at least about 0.4 g/cc, and a total pore volume ofat least about 0.2 cc/g. In yet another particular characterization, thepowdered activated carbon has a median particle size of not greater thanabout 12 μm, a particle density of at least about 0.4 g/cc, and a totalpore volume of at least about 0.2 cc/g.

The activated carbon may also include components that arise naturallyfrom the manufacture of the activated carbon, e.g., when the activatedcarbon is manufactured from lignite coal. For example, one component ofthe activated carbon may be minerals found in the feedstock used tomanufacture the activated carbon. The minerals may advantageouslycatalyze the oxidation of the elemental mercury in the flue gas stream.The presence of such minerals may thereby enhance the kinetics of themercury oxidation such that a reduced contact time with the flue gasstream is required to oxidize and remove sufficient amounts of mercuryfrom the flue gas stream.

The activated carbon may advantageously comprise of minerals including,but not limited to, aluminum-containing minerals, calcium-containingminerals, iron-containing minerals, silicon-containing minerals,silicate-containing minerals, sodium-containing minerals,potassium-containing minerals, zinc-containing minerals, tin-containingminerals, magnesium-containing minerals, and combinations thereof. Theminerals may predominantly be oxide-based minerals, such as metal oxideminerals (e.g., CaO, Fe₂O₃, Fe3O4, FeO, Al2O3), and silicates (e.g.,Al₂SiO5). In one characterization, the minerals predominantly includemetal oxides, particularly aluminum oxides and iron oxides. In anothercharacterization, the minerals include calcium-containing minerals,iron-containing minerals and aluminosilicates. These types of mineralsare particularly well adapted to catalyze the oxidation reaction of themercury. Iron-containing minerals are particularly well adapted tocatalyze the oxidation reaction, and in one characterization, theminerals include at least 1 wt. % iron-containing minerals. The mineralsare intimately intertwined within the activated carbon within awell-controlled porous structure that facilitates the oxidation, captureand removal of mercury. To provide sufficient reaction activity andrapid oxidation kinetics, the activated carbon may include at leastabout 20 wt. % of the minerals, such as at least 25 wt. % and even atleast about 30 wt. % of the minerals. However, excessive amounts of theminerals in the activated carbon may be detrimental to the capture ofmercury. In this regard, the activated carbon may include not greaterthan about 50 wt. % of the minerals, such as not greater than about 45wt. %. Advantageously, the activated carbon may include not greater thanabout 40 wt. % of the minerals, such as not greater than about 35 wt. %of the minerals. The total mineral content may be measured by a TGA701Thermalgravitmetric Analyzer (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, Mich.). Thespecific types and amount of particular minerals may be measured by theNiton XL3t X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analyzer (Thermo Fisher ScientificInc., Waltham, Mass.).

In addition, the activated carbon may also include an amount ofaqueous-based solubilizing medium such as water. The presence of aminimum level of solubilizing medium may advantageously enhance the massdiffusional kinetics of the mercury oxidation and sequestration bysolubilizing oxidized mercury species on the sorbent surface, e.g.,within the mesopores and micropores. In this regard, the activatedcarbon may include at least about 2 wt. % of the solubilizing medium,such as at least about 3 wt. % or at least about 6 wt. %. However, theamount of solubilizing medium in the activated carbon should be notgreater than about 15 wt. %, such as not greater than about 12 wt. %, oreven not greater than about 10 wt. % to avoid interfering with themercury oxidation reaction(s).

In one embodiment, the activated carbon may include at least about 10wt. % of the fixed carbon, such as at least about 15 wt. % or even atleast about 20 wt. % fixed carbon. The amount of fixed carbon in theactivated carbon will typically not exceed about 80 wt. %, such as notgreater than about 60 wt. %, or even not greater than about 55 wt. %.Due to a well-controlled pore structure and the presence of the othercomponents in the activated carbon, a relatively low amount of fixedcarbon is required for mercury oxidation and sequestration, e.g., a lowamount of activated carbon per unit volume of the flue gas stream.

In addition to activated carbon, the activated carbon sorbentcompositions disclosed herein include a passivation agent thateffectively reduces the self-heating and/or the auto-ignitioncharacteristics of the activated carbon sorbent composition, i.e., ascompared to the activated carbon without an effective amount of thepassivation agent.

In one embodiment, the passivation agent comprises a sulfur-containingcompound. The sulfur-containing compound may be selected from the groupconsisting of sulfur oxide compound, sulfide compounds, organic sulfurcompounds and combinations of these compounds. Among these, sulfur oxidecompounds may be particularly effective as a passivation agent. Althoughdescribed herein as comprising a single compound as the passivationagent, it will be appreciated that the passivation agent may include twoor more different compounds, e.g., two or more different sulfur oxidecompounds.

Sulfur oxide compounds that are particularly useful as a passivationagent may comprise a nonionic sulfur oxide compound, defined by theformula SO_(y), wherein y=2 or 3 (e.g., sulfur dioxide and sulfurtrioxide), or an ionic sulfur oxide compound comprising an ionic sulfuroxide species (i.e., an anion), defined by the formula S_(x)O_(y) ²⁻,wherein x=1 or 2 and y=2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In this case, the compound mayinclude the sulfur oxide anion and a cation, where the cation may beselected from hydrogen, a nitrogen-containing compound, or a metalcation. The nitrogen-containing compound may be ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) or analkylammonium compound, for example. The metal cation may be selectedfrom an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a transition metal.For example, the cation may be an alkali metal selected from the groupconsisting of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). The cationmay be an alkaline earth metal selected from the group consisting ofmagnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and barium (Ba). The cation may also be atransition metal cation selected from the group consisting of zinc (Zn),iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn),aluminum (Al), and vanadium (V). The compound may also be a double salt,i.e., one that comprises two cations, and in one characterization thepassivation agent comprises ammonium iron sulfate.

Among sulfur oxide compounds, sulfates may be particularly effective asthe passivation agent. Examples of useful sulfate compounds includeammonium sulfate ((NH₄)₂SO₄), ammonium persulfate ((NH₄)₂S₂O₈), iron IIor III sulfate (FeSO₄ or Fe₂(SO₄)₃), sodium sulfate (Na₂(SO₄), sodiumthiosulfate (Na₂S₂O₃), zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄), aluminum sulfate(Al₂(SO₄)₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). Sulfites may also be effectivepassivation agents, such as sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃).

Sulfide compounds that are particularly useful as a passivation agentmay be selected from hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), sodium sulfide (Na₂S), andsodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS).

Examples of organic sulfur compounds that may be useful for thepassivation agent include those selected from the group consisting ofurea, thiourea, L-cysteine, mercaptoacetic acid, sodium mercaptoacetate,dimercaptosuccinic acid and N-bromosuccinicimide. Among these, thiourea(SC(NH₂)₂) may be particularly effective as a passivation agent.

While not wishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that theforegoing sulfur-containing compounds at least partially oxidize theactivated carbon surface, such that further carbon oxidation reactionsare inhibited when the activated carbon is heated to highertemperatures. The passivation agents may interact with the carbonsurface via intermolecular forces, van der Waals dispersion forces ordipole-dipole interactions, ionic interactions, steric interactions, orby ionic or non-ionic bonding to the activated carbon surface.

The activated carbon sorbent composition may comprise an admixture ofparticulate activated carbon (e.g., PAC) and a particulate passivationagent (e.g., a particulate sulfur compound), e.g., an admixture ofsubstantially dry and free-flowing particulates. In onecharacterization, the passivation agent has a median particle size (D50)that is smaller than the median particle size of the activated carbon.

Although the passivation agent may be admixed with the activated carbon,it may be advantageous to coat the passivation agent onto the activatedcarbon, such that the passivation agent is on the form of a coating thatat least partially coats the activated carbon. In this manner, theamount of passivation agent that is required to effectively passivatethe activated carbon surface may be reduced, i.e., as compared to aparticle admixture of the activated carbon and the passivation agent.Thus, in one characterization, the sorbent composition includesactivated carbon particles and a passivation agent coated onto theactivated carbon, i.e., partially or fully coated onto the activatedcarbon.

In any event, the sorbent composition may comprise an effective amountof passivation agent to passivate the activated carbon and reduce theself-heating and/or auto-ignition properties of the composition. In onecharacterization, the sorbent composition comprises at least about 0.1wt. % of the passivation agent, such as at least about 0.5 wt. %, atleast about 1 wt. % or even at least about 2 wt. % of the passivationagent. Further, the concentration of the passivation agent should not beso high as to substantially interfere with the sequestration of mercuryspecies by the activated carbon. Thus, in another characterization, thesorbent composition includes not greater than about 40 wt. % of thepassivation agent, such as not greater than about 20 wt. % of thepassivation agent, such as not greater than about 10 wt. % of thepassivation agent or even not greater than about 5 wt. % of thepassivation agent.

The activated carbon sorbent composition may include other materialcomponents in addition to the activated carbon and the passivationagent. In one embodiment, the activated carbon sorbent composition alsoincludes one or more oxidation agents that may improve the adsorption ofmercury from a flue gas stream. Oxidation agents may include halogensalts such as inorganic halogen salts, which may include brominecompounds such as bromides, bromates or hypobromites, iodine compoundssuch as iodides, iodates or hypoiodites, or chlorine compounds such aschlorides, chlorates or hypochlorites. The inorganic halogen salt may bean alkali metal or an alkaline earth element containing halogen saltwhere the inorganic halogen salt is associated with an alkali metal suchas lithium, sodium, and potassium or alkaline earth metal such asmagnesium, and calcium. Non-limiting examples of inorganic halogen saltsincluding alkali metal and alkali earth metal counterions includecalcium hypochlorite, calcium hypobromite, calcium hypoiodite, calciumchloride, calcium bromide, calcium iodide, magnesium chloride, magnesiumbromide, magnesium iodide, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodiumiodide, potassium chloride, potassium bromide, potassium iodide, and thelike. The oxidation agents may be optionally included in the compositionat any concentration, such as at least about 0.1 wt. % and not greaterthan about 20 wt. %, such as not greater than about 15 wt. %.

In some examples, the activated carbon sorbent composition may furtherinclude an acid gas agent such as, for example, an alkaline compound.Numerous alkaline agents are known in the art and currently used toremove sulfur oxide species from flue gas and any such alkaline agentmay be used. For example, in various embodiments, the alkaline additivemay be alkali oxides, alkaline earth oxides, hydroxides, carbonates,bicarbonates, phosphates, silicates, aluminates, and combinationsthereof, and in certain embodiments, the alkaline agent may be calciumcarbonate (CaCO₃), calcium oxide (CaO), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂),magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂), magnesiumoxide (MgO), sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃),trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (Na₃(CO₃)(HCO₃).2H₂O), andcombinations thereof. Such acid gas agents are disclosed in more detailin commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/142,636 by Wong etal., which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Activated carbons such as PAC may be manufactured from various sourcesof carbon including plant sources such as coconut and/or walnut shellsor coal sources such as lignite coal. No matter the carbon source, themethod for manufacture of activated carbon may typically becharacterized by four primary steps. FIG. 1 is a flow sheet thatillustrates these steps. The manufacturing process illustrated in FIG. 1may begin with a carbonaceous feedstock 101 such as low-rank lignitecoal with a relatively high content of native minerals. In themanufacturing process, the feedstock 101 is subjected to an elevatedtemperature and one or more oxidizing gases under exothermic conditionsfor a period of time to sufficiently increase surface area, createporosity, alter surface chemistry, and expose and exfoliate nativeminerals previously contained within feedstock 101. The specific stepsin the process may include: (1) dehydration 102, where the feedstock 101is heated to remove the free and bound water, typically occurring attemperatures ranging from 100° C. to 150° C.; (2) devolatilization 103,where free and weakly bound volatile organic constituents are removed,typically occurring at temperatures above about 150° C.; (3)carbonization 104, where non-carbon elements continue to be removed andelemental carbon is concentrated and transformed into random amorphousstructures, typically occurring at temperatures of from about 350° C. toabout 800° C.; and (4) activation 105, where steam, air, and/or otheroxidizing agent(s) is added and pores are developed to produce aparticulate GAC, typically occurring at temperatures above about 800° C.

The manufacturing process may be carried out, for example, in amulti-hearth or rotary furnace. The manufacturing process is notdiscrete and steps can overlap and use various temperatures, gases, andresidence times within each step to promote desired surface chemistryand physical characteristics of the manufactured product.

After activation 105, the granular activated carbon (GAC) may besubjected to a comminution step 106 to reduce the particle size (e.g.,reduce the median particle size) of the GAC product. Comminution 106 mayoccur, for example, in a mill such as a roll mill, jet mill or otherlike process. Comminution 106 may be carried out fora time sufficient toreduce the median particle size to form PAC from the thermally treatedGAC, e.g., for a time sufficient to reduce the median particle size toless than about 1.0 mm.

According to an embodiment of the present disclosure, a passivating stepis implemented by contacting the activated carbon (e.g., the PAC) withthe passivation agent, e.g., following the activation step 105, as instep 106A. The passivation agent may be contacted with the activatedcarbon by various methods thereby forming an activated carbon sorbentcomposition 107. For example, the passivation agent in a gas, liquid(e.g., pure or in solution), or solid form may be mixed with,impregnated in and/or coated onto the GAC as it exits the activationfurnace, before 106A comminution 106, for example directly followingactivation or after cooling of the GAC. Alternatively, or in additionto, the passivation agent may likewise be mixed with, impregnated inand/or coated onto the activated carbon after 106B the comminution step106, e.g., may be mixed with, impregnated in, or coated onto thepowdered activated carbon.

In one particular embodiment, the passivation agent is coated onto theactivated carbon (e.g., onto the PAC). For example, one or moreprecursors (e.g., precursor salts) to the passivation agent may bedissolved in a solvent (e.g., water) to form a solution. The solutionmay then be coated onto the activated carbon, such as by spraying thesolution onto the activated carbon and thereafter drying the activatedcarbon to leave a coating of the passivation agent on the carbonsurface. Alternatively, the passivation agent may be coated onto thesorbent by mixing the activated carbon with the solution containing thepassivation agent (e.g., forming a slurry) and then separating theactivated carbon from the solution and drying the activated carbon toleave a coating of the passivation agent on the carbon. While notwishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that coating thepassivation agent onto the activated carbon in the foregoing mannerfacilitates the reaction of the passivation agent with the surface ofthe carbon. Depending on the passivation agent employed there may beadvantages to selecting one or the other method of coating the carbon.For example, coating via a spray coating may produce a composition withdifferent characteristics or properties than coating via a liquid basedslurry.

In addition, the activated carbon sorbent composition including apassivation agent may be formed by admixing or coating a precursor tothe passivation agent (e.g., a precursor to a sulfur compound) with oronto the activated carbon. The sorbent composition may then be treated(e.g., heat treatment or chemical treatment) to convert the precursor tothe passivation agent into the passivation agent.

The activated carbon sorbent composition disclosed herein may exhibitreduced self-heating and/or auto-ignition properties, as evidenced by areduced specific enthalpy and/or oxidation rate, i.e., as compared tothe activated carbon without an effective amount of the passivationagent. To measure the specific enthalpy and oxidation rate, differentialscanning calorimetry (DSC) may be used. For example, a TA Q2000 DSCcalorimeter (TA Instruments, New Castle, Del.) using heat flowmeasurements, may be employed. The specific enthalpy may be calculatedwhen heat is released by a material undergoing a chemical reaction, forexample upon oxidation. DSC may be used to detect the heat releasedafter the environment changes from an inert atmosphere to one thatcontains oxygen at a certain temperature, e.g., about 150° C. In anactivated carbon sorbent composition including a passivation agent, thespecific enthalpy should be less than the untreated activated carbonsuch that less heat is released and therefore less heat is stored in thesample. In the test method utilized to report specific enthalpy valuesherein, the samples (e.g., about 10 mg to 15 mg samples) areequilibrated at 20° C. and then heated to 120° C. at a rate of about 10°C. per minute. This temperature is maintained for about 2 min, and thenheating continues to about 150° C. at a rate of about 10° C./min. Thesample is held at this temperature for about 2 min. The atmosphere isthen changed from nitrogen to air and the sample is kept at a constanttemperature of about 150° C. for about 20 min. The gas flow rate of thenitrogen or air is about 50 mL/min.

Specific enthalpy is calculated by the instrument. Oxidation rates arefound from the derivative heat flow curve, which is also calculated bythe instrument. The initial oxidation rate is the oxidation ratecalculated at 0.05 min (3 seconds) after the atmosphere change fromnitrogen to air when the sample starts to release heat. The peakoxidation rate is the highest oxidation rate occurring during theoxidation reaction in the presence of air.

One useful measure of the efficacy of the passivation agents disclosedherein is to compare the specific enthalpy of the (untreated) activatedcarbon, i.e., the specific enthalpy of a composition that consistsessentially of the activated carbon sorbent, to the specific enthalpy ofthe activated carbon composition, e.g., after the addition of thepassivation agent. In one example, the specific enthalpy of theactivated carbon composition comprising the passivation agent is atleast about 5% less than the specific enthalpy of the activated carbonsorbent. For example, the specific enthalpy of the activated carboncomposition may be at least about 10%, such as at least about 20%, atleast about 30%, at least about 40%, or even at least about 50% lessthan the specific enthalpy of the activated carbon sorbent.

Another useful measure of the efficacy of the passivation agentsdisclosed herein is to compare the peak oxidation rate of the(untreated) activated carbon, i.e., the peak oxidation rate of acomposition that consists essentially of the activated carbon sorbent,to the peak oxidation rate of the activated carbon sorbent composition,e.g., after the addition of the passivation agent. In one example, thepeak oxidation rate of the activated carbon sorbent compositioncomprising the passivation agent is at least about 5% less than the peakoxidation rate of the activated carbon sorbent. For example, the peakoxidation rate may be at least about 10%, such as at least about 20%, atleast about 30%, at least about 40%, or even at least about 50% lessthan the peak oxidation rate of the activated carbon sorbent.

The activated carbon sorbent compositions are particularly useful forremoval of contaminants, especially mercury, from flue gas streams. Itis an advantage of the activated carbon sorbent compositions disclosedherein that the passivation agent(s) do not substantially inhibit theability of the activated carbon to sequester mercury. The ability tocapture mercury may be measured by a dynamic mercury index (DMI) testthat measures mercury (Hg) captured in micro-grams of Hg per gram ofactivated carbon composition (μg Hg/g activated carbon composition). Anincrease in, or higher DMI, or μg Hg/g carbon (μg/g) captured, is anindication of a higher mercury capture efficiency of a sorbent. Thistest simulates conditions in a coal burning facility's flue gas stream.The test system includes a preheater, carbon feed, mercury feed, andreaction chamber. The mercury is fed into a reactor chamber along withcarbon, wherein they are entrained. Uncaptured mercury is analyzed andDMI calculated. Temperature of the entrained mercury and carbon is keptat about 325° F. (163° C.). Air entrainment and injection rates ofbetween about 1 and about 5 lb/MMacf (one million actual cubic feet) aremaintained such that residence time of the carbon in the reactionchamber is about one second to simulate electrical generation unit (EGU)facility conditions. The mercury concentration in the system isapproximately 10 μg/m³.

In one example, the DMI of the activated carbon sorbent compositionsdisclosed herein is at least about 40 μg/g, such as at least about 100μg/g, at least about 150 μg/g, at least about 200 μg/g, at least about250 μg/g, at least about 300 μg/g, or even at least about 400 μg/g.

In one embodiment, a method for treating flue gas streams using anactivated carbon sorbent composition such as those disclosed herein canbe characterized by three primary steps, which may occur sequentially orsimultaneously: (1) contact of the sorbent composition, e.g., includingan activated carbon such as PAC, with the mercury species, which istypically present in very dilute concentrations in the flue gas (e.g.,<100 parts Hg per billion); (2) conversion of elemental mercury (i.e.,Hg⁰), which is relatively inert and not easily adsorbed, into anoxidized mercury species (e.g., Hg⁺ and Hg⁺²), which is more readilyadsorbed and is significantly more soluble in an aqueous solubilizingmedium such as water; and (3) the diffusion of the oxidized mercuryspecies into pores where it is held tightly (e.g., sequestered) withoutbeing released. The flue gas streams traverse the ductwork at very highvelocities, such as in excess of about 25 feet/second (7.6 m/s).Therefore, once injected, the sorbent must rapidly accomplish thesethree steps to contact, oxidize, and sequester the mercury species. Insome instances, the sorbent only has a residence time of 1 to 2 secondsin the flue gas.

Typical processing and a method for treatment of a flue gas stream withan activated carbon sorbent composition at a coal burning facility orindustrial boiler is represented in FIG. 2. The activated carbon sorbentcomposition may be shipped via truck 201 or rail car to a coal burningfacility 200. The activated carbon sorbent composition is kept in a silo202 until it is contacted with the flue gas stream. It is at these aswell as other points, described hereafter, that the possibility forself-heating and/or auto-ignition of the sorbent composition isincreased due to the amount being transported and stored.

As illustrated in FIG. 2, for power or heat generation as in coal-firedplants or industrial boiler plants, a boiler 203 where coal is combusted(e.g., burned) produces a flue gas stream 204. As illustrated in FIG. 2,the flue gas stream 204 may proceed to an air heater unit 205 where thetemperature of the flue gas stream 204 is reduced. Thereafter, the fluegas stream 204 may be introduced to a separation unit such as anelectrostatic precipitator (ESP) 206 and/or a fabric filter baghouseunit (BH unit) 207, each of which removes particulate matter from theflue gas, before exiting out a stack 208. For example, a cold-side(i.e., after the air heater unit 205) ESP 206 and/or BH unit 207 can beused. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the plantmay include other devices not illustrated in FIG. 2, such as a selectivecatalytic reduction unit (SCR) and the like, e.g. a wet or dry scrubber,and may have numerous other configurations.

In order to capture mercury from the flue gas, an activated carbonsorbent composition may be transported via air entrainment and contactedwith (e.g., injected into) the flue gas stream 204 either before 205A orafter 205B the air heater unit 205, but before the ESP 206 which willremove the sorbent composition from the flue gas. More recently TOXECON™systems have become popular because they allow facilities to sell theash from the combusted coal to concrete manufacturers. These systems usean ESP 206 upstream from BH units 206 with sorbent injection 205Coccurring after the ESP 206 but before the BH unit 207 such that the ashis captured by the ESP 206 and can be sold for concrete production.Injection of an activated carbon sorbent composition upstream 205C ofthe BH unit 207 functions to sequester mercury and other contaminants,and the activated carbon sorbent composition is then removed from theflue stream in the BH unit 207 before emission from the stack 208.Because it is not diluted with fly ash, activated carbon not entrainedand captured by the filter bags of the BH unit 207 may accumulate in ahopper 209 of the BH unit 207. The sorbent compositions disclosed hereinmay have a reduced propensity to self-ignite due to absorption ofoxygen, especially when the outside ambient temperature is high.

EXAMPLES Example 1

A comparative sample, Sample A, comprised of an activated carbon derivedfrom a lignite coal feedstock is prepared substantially as described inrelation to FIG. 1 above. Following activation, the comminution step isconducted until the resulting PAC is characterized as having a medianparticle size (D50) of about 12 μm, a surface area of at least about 350m²/g, a particle density of at least about 0.3 g/cc, and a total porevolume of at least about 0.3 cc/g. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidationrate of comparative Sample A is tested as described above and theresults are provided in Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercuryis assessed using the DMI test, and this result is provided in Table 2.Sample A does not include an oxidizing agent.

Example 2

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon compositions disclosed herein, a sulfur oxidepassivation agent, here being sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), is added tocomparative Sample A to form Sample B. For preparation of Sample B,10.18 ml of a 1.77 wt. % sulfuric acid solution is sprayed onto 50 g ofSample A while fluidizing for 30 minutes (min.) The sprayed sample isdried at about 150° C. for about 2 hours (h) to yield an activatedcarbon composition comprising about 0.5 wt. % H₂SO₄. Enthalpy, initialand peak oxidation rates of Sample B are tested as described above andare listed in Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury isassessed in the DMI test and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 3

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions disclosed herein, a sulfuroxide passivation agent, here being iron (III) sulfate (Fe₂(SO₄)₃), isadded to comparative Sample A to form Sample C. For preparation ofSample C, 12.5 ml of a 20 wt. % iron (III) sulfate solution is sprayedonto 50 g of comparative Sample A while fluidizing for 30 min. Thesprayed sample is dried at about 150° C. for about 2 h to yield anactivated carbon sorbent composition comprising about 0.5 wt. %Fe₂(SO₄)₃. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample C aretested as described above and are listed in Table 1. Further, theability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this resultis listed in Table 2.

Example 4

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions disclosed herein, a sulfuroxide passivation agent, here being sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃), is added tocomparative Sample A to form Sample D. For preparation of Sample D, 12.5ml of a 20 wt. % sodium sulfite solution is sprayed onto 50 g ofcomparative Sample A while fluidizing for 30 min. The sprayed sample isdried at about 150° C. for about 2 h, to yield an activated carbonsorbent composition comprising about 5 wt. % Na₂SO₃. Enthalpy, initialand peak oxidation rates of Sample D are tested as described above andare listed in Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury isassessed in the DMI test and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 5

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions disclosed herein, a sulfuroxide passivation agent, here being ammonium persulfate ((NH₄)₂S₂O₈), isadded to comparative Sample A to form Sample E. For preparation ofSample E, 12.1 ml of a 17.3 wt. % ammonium persulfate solution issprayed onto 50 g of comparative Sample A while fluidizing for 30 min.The sprayed sample is dried at about 150° C. for about 2 h, to yield anactivated carbon sorbent composition comprising about 4 wt. %(NH₄)₂S₂O₈. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample E aretested as described above and are listed in Table 1. Further, theability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this resultis listed in Table 2.

Example 6

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions, a sulfur oxide passivationagent, here being sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), is added to comparativeSample A to form Sample F. For preparation of Sample F, 12.8 ml of a 21wt. % sodium sulfate solution is sprayed onto 50 g comparative Sample Awhile fluidizing for 30 min. The sprayed sample is dried at about 150°C. for 2 h, to yield an activated carbon composition comprising about 5wt. % Na₂SO₄. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample F aretested as described above and are listed in Table 1. Further, theability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this resultis listed in Table 2.

Example 7

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions, a sulfur oxide passivationagent, here being sodium thiosulfate (Na₂S₂O₃), is added to comparativeSample A to form Sample G. For preparation of Sample G, 11.5 ml of a 12wt. % sodium thiosulfate solution is sprayed onto 50 g of comparativeSample A while fluidizing for 30 min. The sprayed sample is dried atabout 150° C. for about 2 h, to yield an activated carbon sorbentcomposition comprising about 3 wt. % Na₂S₂O₃. Enthalpy, initial and peakoxidation rates of Sample G are tested as described above and are listedin Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessed in theDMI test and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 8

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions, a sulfur oxide passivationagent, here being zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄), is added to comparative Sample Ato form Sample H. For preparation of Sample H, 13.2 ml of a 25 wt. %zinc sulfate solution is sprayed onto 50 g of comparative Sample A whilefluidizing for 30 min. The sprayed sample is dried at about 150° C. forabout 2 h, to yield an activated carbon sorbent composition comprisingabout 6 wt. % ZnSO₄. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates ofSample H are tested as described above and are listed in Table 1.Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMI test andthis result is listed in Table 2.

Example 9

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon sorbent compositions, a sulfur oxide passivationagent, here being ammonium sulfate ((NH₄)₂SO₄), is added to comparativeSample A to form Sample I. For preparation of Sample I, 30.5 ml of a34.4 wt. % ammonium sulfate solution is sprayed onto 100 g ofcomparative Sample A while fluidizing for 30 min. The sprayed sample isdried at about 150° C. for about 2 h, to yield an activated carboncomposition comprising about 9.5 wt. % (NH₄)₂SO₄. Enthalpy, initial andpeak oxidation rates of Sample I are tested as described above and arelisted in Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessedin the DMI test and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 10

To test for reduced self-heating and reduced auto-ignition properties ofthe activated carbon compositions, a sulfur oxide passivation agent,here being aluminum sulfate (Al₂(SO₄)₃), is added to comparative SampleA to form Sample J. For preparation of Sample J, 12.1 ml of a 17.7 wt. %aluminum sulfate solution is sprayed onto 50 g of comparative Sample Awhile fluidizing for about 30 min. The sprayed sample is dried at about150° C. for about 2 h, to yield an activated carbon compositioncomprising about 4 wt. % Al₂(SO₄)₃. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidationrates of Sample J are tested as described above and are listed inTable 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMItest and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 11

To test for reduced self-heating and auto-ignition properties of theactivated carbon compositions, a sulfur oxide passivation agent, herebeing iron (II) sulfate (FeSO₄), is added to comparative Sample A toform Sample K. For preparation of Sample K, 15.3 ml of a 34 wt. %aluminum sulfate solution is sprayed onto 50 g of comparative Sample Awhile fluidizing for about 30 min. The sprayed solution is dried atabout 150° C. for about 2 h, to yield an activated carbon compositioncomprising about 9 wt. % FeSO₄. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidationrate of Sample K is tested as described above and is listed in Table 1.Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessed in the DMI test andthis result is listed in Table 2.

Example 12

To test for reduced self-heating and auto-ignition properties of theactivated carbon compositions, a sulfide passivation agent, here beingsodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS), is added to comparative Sample A to formSample L. For preparation of Sample L, 16.7 ml of a 30 wt. % solution ofhydrogen sulfide in water is sprayed onto 100 g of comparative Sample Awhile fluidizing. The sprayed sample is dried at about 150° C. for about2 h, to yield an activated carbon composition with approximately 5 wt. %NaHS. Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample L are testedas described above and are listed in Table 1. Further, the ability tocapture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this result is listed inTable 2.

Example 13

To test for reduced self-heating and auto-ignition properties of theactivated carbon compositions, a sulfide passivation agent, here beingsodium sulfide (Na₂S), is added to comparative Sample A to form SampleM. For preparation of Sample M, 33.3 ml of a 15 wt. % solution of sodiumsulfide in water is sprayed onto 100 g of comparative Sample A whilefluidizing. The sprayed sample is dried at about 150° C. for about 2 hto yield an activated carbon composition comprising about 5 wt. % Na₂S.Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample M are tested asdescribed above and are listed in Table 1. Further, the ability tocapture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this result is listed inTable 2.

Example 14

To test for reduced self-heating and auto-ignition properties of theactivated carbon compositions, an organic passivation agent, here beingthiourea (SC(NH₂)₂), is added to comparative Sample A to form Sample N.For preparation of Sample N, 50 g of a 10 wt. % solution of the thioureain water is sprayed onto 100 g of comparative Sample A while fluidizingas and dried at about 150° C. for about 2 h to yield an activated carboncomposition comprising about 5 wt. % thiourea. Enthalpy, initial andpeak oxidation rates of Sample N are tested as described above and arelisted in Table 1. Further, the ability to capture mercury is assessedin the DMI test and this result is listed in Table 2.

Example 15

As disclosed in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2013/0109562 by Wong et al.,which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, halogens inthe form of halide salts may be used to enhance oxidation reactionkinetics and mass diffusion of mercury species on a sorbent. To testwhether addition of a halide salt affected passivation, Sample I, having9.5 wt. % (NH₄)₂SO₄ as described above in Example 9, is further treatedwith a halide salt, here being sodium bromide (NaBr), to form Sample O.For preparation of Sample O, a sodium bromide solution is sprayed on to50 g of Sample I while fluidizing for about 30 min. The sprayed sampleis dried at about 150° C. for about 2 h to yield an activated carboncomposition comprising about 8.1 wt. % (NH₄)₂SO₄ and about 10 wt. % Br.Enthalpy, initial and peak oxidation rates of Sample O are tested asdescribed above and are listed in Table 1. Further, the ability tocapture mercury is assessed in the DMI test and this result is listed inTable 2.

TABLE 1 Specific Enthalpy and Oxidation Rates Specific Initial PeakEnthalpy oxidation rate oxidation rate Sample (J/g) (W/g · min) (W/g ·min) A 4.65 0.42 0.61 B 2.34 0.15 0.21 C 2.16 0.17 0.19 D 2.5 0.19 0.23E 1.78 0.15 0.18 F 2.42 0.19 0.24 G 3.48 0.29 0.35 H 2.97 0.24 0.32 I2.23 0.15 0.22 J 2.25 0.14 0.27 K 2.29 0.04 0.09 L 4.95 0.23 0.37 M 4.470.36 0.54 N 1.86 0.10 0.15 O 3.46 0.05 0.20

TABLE 2 Mercury Capture by Activated Carbon Sorbent Compositions SampleMercury Capture (μg/g) A 20 B 433 C 300 D 307 E 448 F 388 G 144 H 92 I282 J 90 K 224 L 44 M 11 N 104 O 369

As shown in Table 1, self-heating and auto-ignition properties arereduced by addition of the passivation agents to activated carbon.Specifically, the specific enthalpy, initial oxidation rate, and/or peakoxidation rate of the example compositions comprising the passivationagents are reduced, in most cases significantly, as compared to thecomparative untreated activated carbon Sample A. Addition of a halidesalt raised the enthalpy as compared to a sample with only passivationagent added, but the peak oxidation rate is similar to the sample havingonly the passivation agent.

Furthermore, as shown in Table 2, many of the passivation agents alsoimprove mercury capture performance in the gas phase as compared to thenon-treated activated carbon comparative Sample A. As indicatedpreviously a higher DMI, or μg Hg/g carbon removed, indicates increasedmercury capture efficiency of the sample.

While various embodiments of an activated carbon composition, a methodfor making an activated carbon composition, and a method for treating aflue gas with an activated carbon composition have been described indetail, it is apparent that modifications and adaptations of thoseembodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. However, is to beexpressly understood that such modifications and adaptations are withinthe spirit and scope of the present disclosure.

What is claimed is: 1.-57. (canceled)
 58. A sorbent composition,comprising: powdered activated carbon having a median particle size ofnot greater than about 30 μm; and a passivation agent comprising asulfur oxide compound comprising an anion defined by the formulaS_(x)O_(y) ²⁻, where x=2 and y=3, 4, 5, 6, or 8, and a cation selectedfrom the group consisting of a hydrogen, aluminum, a nitrogen containingcompound, a transition metal, an alkali metal, and an alkaline earthmetal.
 59. The sorbent composition of claim 58, wherein the cation is anitrogen-containing compound.
 60. The sorbent composition of claim 59,wherein the nitrogen-containing compound is ammonium.
 61. The sorbentcomposition of claim 59, wherein the sulfur oxide compound is ammoniumpersulfate.
 62. The sorbent composition of claim 58, wherein the cationis an alkaline earth metal.
 63. The sorbent composition of claim 62,wherein the alkaline earth metal is selected from the group consistingof magnesium, calcium, and barium.
 64. The sorbent composition of claim58, wherein the cation is a transition metal.
 65. The sorbentcomposition of claim 64, wherein the cation is selected from the groupconsisting of zinc, iron, copper, nickel, titanium, manganese, andvanadium.
 66. The sorbent composition of claim 58, wherein the sorbentcomposition comprises at least about 0.1 wt. % and less than about 20 wt% of the passivation agent.
 67. The sorbent composition of claim 58,wherein the sorbent composition comprises at least about 0.5 wt. % andless than about 10 wt % of the passivation agent.
 68. The sorbentcomposition of claim 58, wherein a specific enthalpy of the sorbentcomposition is at least about 20% lower than a specific enthalpy of thepowdered activated carbon.
 69. The sorbent composition of claim 58,wherein a peak oxidation rate of the sorbent composition is at leastabout 20% lower than a peak oxidation rate of the powdered activatedcarbon.
 70. The sorbent composition of claim 58, further comprising anoxidation agent.
 71. The sorbent composition of claim 70, wherein theoxidation agent comprises a halogen species.
 72. The sorbent compositionof claim 71, wherein the halogen species comprises a bromide saltselected from the group consisting of sodium bromide, ammonium bromide,calcium bromide, lithium bromide, and magnesium bromide.
 73. The sorbentcomposition of claim 71, wherein the halogen species comprises iodinecompound selected from the group consisting of iodides, iodates, andhypoiodites.
 74. The sorbent composition of claim 58, wherein thepowdered activated carbon has a particle density of at least about 0.4g/cc, a total pore volume of at least about 0.2 cc/g, and a ratio ofmicropore volume to mesopore volume of at least about 0.7 and no morethan about 1.5.
 75. The sorbent composition of claim 58, wherein thepowdered activated carbon has a median particle size of at least about 6μm.
 76. A sorbent composition, comprising: free flowing powderedactivated carbon having a median particle size of not greater than about30 μm, a particle density of at least about 0.4 g/cc, a total porevolume of at least about 0.2 cc/g, and a ratio of micropore volume tomesopore volume of at least about 0.7 and no more than about 1.5; and apassivation agent comprising a sulfur oxide compound comprising an aniondefined by the formula S_(x)O_(y) ²⁻, where x=2 and y=3, 4, 5, 6, or 8,and a cation selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, aluminum,a nitrogen containing compound, a transition metal, an alkali metal, andan alkaline earth metal, wherein the sorbent composition comprises atleast about 0.1 wt. % and less than about 20 wt % of the passivationagent.
 77. A sorbent composition, comprising: free flowing powderedactivated carbon having a median particle size of not greater than about30 μm; a passivation agent comprising a sulfur oxide compound comprisingan anion defined by the formula S_(x)O_(y) ²⁻, where x=2 and y=3, 4, 5,6, or 8, and a cation selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen,aluminum, a nitrogen containing compound, a transition metal, an alkalimetal, and an alkaline earth metal, and a halogen species.